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{1}

NEOLITHIC DEW-PONDS AND
CATTLE-WAYS

I

CISSBURY RING AND CHANCTONBURY RING

Perhaps all those who have tried to realise the mode of life of the inhabitants of hill-encampments have found the question of the water-supply their greatest difficulty. General Pitt-Rivers and others have conjectured that there may have been wells within or near the entrenchments; while some, equally at a loss for a solution of the problem, have suggested that these encampments were only resorted to in time of sudden and transient emergency. As to the well theory—setting aside the difficulty of imagining that neolithic man had engineering skill and appliances to enable him to reach the water-level from a height such as Chanctonbury—we may point out that no vestige of a contemporary well has ever been discovered. As to the other suggestion, that of the transitory character of the occupation of these earthworks, a good deal of evidence in opposition to it will be offered when we deal with the Cattle-ways and their connection with {2} the fortified Dew-ponds which are to be found at Chanctonbury and Cissbury.

Striking inland from Worthing, one climbs the Downs to-day by a rough road which leads directly to Cissbury Ring. Soon after leaving the flat land which, at an earlier epoch, was probably a salt marsh, one comes upon a depression in the ground near a disused windmill. This is a dried-up dew-pond which was originally surrounded by an artificial depression in the ground with an embankment beyond. Before, however, entering on the special subject of this paper, it may be well to say a few words on the theory and practical making of dew-ponds in general.

We are not aware that the thermo-dynamics of a dew-pond have ever been elucidated, and it is evident that this cannot be done until the construction of such a pond is understood. There is still in this country at least one wandering gang of men (analogous to the mediæval bands of bell-founders, masons, &c.) who will construct for the modern farmer a pond which, in any suitable situation in a sufficiently dry soil, will always contain water. This water is not derived from springs or rainfall, and is speedily lost if even the smallest rivulet is allowed to flow into the pond. The gang of dew-pond makers commence operations by hollowing out the earth for a space far in excess of the apparent requirements of the proposed pond. They then thickly cover the whole of the hollow with a {3} coating of dry straw. The straw in its turn is covered by a layer of well-chosen, finely puddled clay, and the upper surface of the clay is then closely strewn with stones. Care has to be taken that the margin of the straw is effectively protected by clay. The pond will gradually become filled with water, the more rapidly the larger it is, even though no rain may fall. If such a structure is situated on the summit of a down, during the warmth of a summer day the earth will have stored a considerable amount of heat, while the pond, protected from this heat by the non-conductivity of the straw, is at the same time chilled by the process of evaporation from the puddled clay. The consequence is that during the night the moisture of the comparatively warm air is condensed on the surface of the cold clay. As the condensation during the night is in excess of the evaporation during the day, the pond becomes, night by night, gradually filled. Theoretically, we may observe that during the day the air being comparatively charged with moisture, evaporation is necessarily less than the precipitation during the night. In practice it is found that the pond will constantly yield a supply of the purest water.

The dew-pond will cease to attract the dew if the layer of straw should get wet, as it then becomes of the same temperature as the surrounding earth, and ceases to act as a non-conductor of heat. This, practically, always occurs if a spring is allowed to {4} flow into the pond, or if the layer of clay (technically called the “crust”) is pierced. Now to return to this depression in the ground which we called a dried-up dew-pond. Such in fact     I.—Dried-up dew-pond near Cissbury, fortified by a surrounding ditch and earthen wall it is; and the question now arises—When was this dew-pond constructed? Standing upon the Downs above it may be seen the gigantic outlines of Cissbury Ring, the work of neolithic man. Dew-ponds such as this are only found within the area surrounding these neolithic settlements, and thus a presumption is raised {5} that we may find their origin in the same epoch.     II.—Neolithic roadway leading to southern face of Cissbury Ring That supposition, moreover, is confirmed in connection with the dew-pond of which we are speaking by the fact that it appears to be thoroughly fortified by a surrounding ditch and earthen wall, precisely similar to, though on a lesser scale than, the great prehistoric earthworks on the top of the Downs.

In these facts we find a solution of the long-standing problem of the water-supply of these elevated settlements. {6}

Leaving this pond behind us, and merely noting that it is fortified on account of its distance from the Ring, we ascend the Downs in the direction of Cissbury. Turning to the right through the woods when within a few hundred yards of the great southern entrance of the Ring, we come upon a rolling tract of comparatively low-lying country, to the south of the main structure and here a grassy roadway will be met with, from which a good view may be had over the valley below.

This roadway is of no modern construction; its smooth surface was doubtless formed on the face of the Downs when neolithic man built his embankments around Cissbury, to which the roadway directly leads.

Looking down from this grassy way into the valley below there may be seen another dried-up dew-pond; and to the north of this may be traced the outlines of great terraces cut in successive steps on the face of the opposite Downs, the artificially level platforms of which vary from 130 to 150 yards in width, and the rises vary from 10 to 20 feet.

There has been considerable doubt as to the purpose of these terraces. It has been suggested that they were formed for purposes of cultivation; or that they may have been used as an outer defence to Cissbury. At any rate they are so situated as to afford an efficient defence if required against an attack by wolves coming up the valley. This defence would be the more needed because the folding of the Downs shuts out any distant view in this direction. Wolves {7} might be tempted to approach the settlement by the herds which we shall presently show were kept within the Rings at Cissbury.

Still farther to the east are many traces of a system     III.—Another view of the same Neolithic roadway in the foreground of defence. In fact, we are not overstating the case if we say that some form of protection may be traced wherever an incursion might be feared. A distinction may be drawn between the forms of defence which are constructed with a ditch and embankments, and {8} those which simply have an embankment and no ditch.

Both these forms of defence may be met with around Cissbury.

It seems to us probable that the embankments which are provided with a ditch were built against an adversary capable of using projectiles, as cover could be obtained by concealment in the ditch. The embankments which are not so provided may very possibly have been simply intended as a defence against an animal attack. These low embankments without a ditch may generally be found for many miles around the sites selected by neolithic man for his settlements.

It seems incredible that these extensive earthworks could have been defended by the inhabitants of the settlements; for this presupposes a vast population, too vast, it appears to us, to have been supported by the available land contained within the defended area around the settlements. Besides, if the level land below the Downs were swampy or covered with forests it becomes a little difficult to see where the opposing enemy could have lived.

To us the explanation of these low earthen embankments appears to be that they were intended as defences against wolves, which we suppose must have been the chief source of danger to the herds and inhabitants of the settlements.

Cissbury Ring itself is an immense structure, surrounding the top of an elevated down, roughly oval,
{9} {10}{Blank} IV.—View of inner and outer embankments at Cissbury Ring {11} and having a circumference of about a mile and a half.     V.—Depression marking the site of a guard-house just outside the southern entrance to Cissbury Ring An inner and an outer circular embankment exist, separated by a deep ditch, the height of the inner ring being frequently as much as 40 feet from the bottom of the ditch.

These Rings are pierced at various points with openings, which will be dealt with separately.

It may be remembered that we diverged from the direct path into the Ring. This path leads to the main {12} entrance, which is situated in the western part of the southern aspect.

The ditch between the rims is here at the southern entrance filled up, and the great inner ring is cleft; but outside the earth which fills the ditch, and close to the end of the ring, is a deep depression which marks the site of a guard-house.

Many such depressions are found within the Ring. They are generally of approximately the same area and depth—3 or 4 feet deep, and 10 to 12 feet in diameter. These depressions are all that remain of the dwellings of prehistoric man. The larger and deeper depressions may be the shafts leading to underground flint quarries which were excavated by General Pitt-Rivers. Turning to the east, within the camp, we presently arrive at one of these smaller depressions close to an entrance, which is above the platforms. At this entrance it may be seen that the outer embankment is cleft and the inner one only partially so. This depression is suitably chosen for the dwelling of the man whose duty it may have been to keep a look-out over the falling land on which the terraces have been constructed—a sort of watchman’s house.

Proceeding on our course, we come to the eastern entrance. Here we find the traces of guard-houses outside, remarkable in that they have rectangular ground plans. These occupy the space which would otherwise have been taken up by the ends of the outer Ring.

{13} {14}{Blank} VI.—Cleft in the outer ring at Cissbury at a point overlooking the terraces

{15} It is curious to note that here, unlike the great southern entrance, which has merely an outside guard-house, this entrance has not only guard-houses, but that immediately within are the remains of a dwelling.     VII.—Eastern entrance to Cissbury Ring showing traces of rectangular guard-houses The position of this dwelling, situated as it is at the point where the cattle, as we shall proceed to show, entered and left the Ring, seems to suggest that the cattle were counted. Perhaps it may have been a cattle tally-house.

Leading from the outside of this eastern entrance, {16} two almost parallel artificial gullies or cattle-ways are deeply scored upon the side of the down. They wind round the north-east shoulder of the down, and arrive on level ground at a point directly to the north of     VIII.—Cattle-ways leading down to dew-pond at the north of Cissbury Ring the Ring. At their terminations on the level ground lies a dew-pond, still full of water.

Apparently the herds were driven down the lower road, which leads most directly to the dew-pond, and, after being watered, were driven back again by the upper of the two roads, the confusion which would have {17} been caused by the passing of animals going in opposite directions upon the same road being thus avoided.

We point out that the existence of these two cattle-ways leading directly to a dew-pond is further evidence in support of our contention that some of these ponds are contemporary with the hill-settlements. Immediately adjacent to this dew-pond, which is without defensive earthworks, lie the traces of a prehistoric habitation. The importance of this dew-pond to the settlement is obvious from the fact that it was thus guarded, and that, in the event of any alarm, assistance could be summoned from the settlement above. It will be observed that we have now adduced a threefold evidence in favour of the view that some of the dew-ponds are contemporary with the neolithic earthworks:—

(a) Certain dew-ponds are fortified in a manner similar to the neolithic earthworks of the settlements.

(b) Some of the neolithic earthworks around the settlements are constructed in such a manner as to provide communication, to and fro, between them and certain dew-ponds.

(c) That a dwelling similar to the dwellings within the Ring is not unfrequently found in close proximity to a dew-pond.

In our opinion this evidence is conclusive as to the neolithic construction of some of the dew-ponds.

Continuing the circuit of the wall, we find numerous traces of habitations in a contracted area in the north-{18}western part of the region enclosed by the Ring. These habitations were probably occupied by the herdsmen and their women and children.

From this portion of the settlement there is a narrow footpath, in places deeply worn into the -round, also leading directly to the dew-pond. We know of only one instance of a dew-pond being found within any of these ringed settlements ; and we suggest that the explanation is to be found in the fact that, on the inside of the Ring, the animals were so closely packed that their trampling feet would have rendered any pond useless.

Lying to the north of Cissbury Ring, at a distance of about four miles, is Chanctonbury Ring. This is assailable only on its southern side, and is a landmark in every direction, the views from its summit being amongst the widest in England.

When walking from one Ring to the other we discovered a low embankment, and as this did not present any of the characteristics of modern work, we determined to trace its course. We found that it enclosed an area roughly circular, with a circumference of about three or four miles.

We were able with absolute certainty to trace the embankment throughout its entire length, with the exception of some few hundreds of yards on the rising ground in the west. On this sloping ground the rains of thousands of years had washed it away. {19}

The area contained within this embankment was probably devoted to the production of hay or used as a grazing ground, and had been protected not only by the mound but by guard-houses, of which we found the traces at intervals in the northern section of the structure.

    IX.—The low embankment enclosing an area of land between Cissbury and Chanctonbury Rings

Leaving this enclosure behind us, and continuing in the direction of Chanctonbury Ring, we observed yet further earthworks.

These consisted in the first place of a low embankment running directly towards Chanctonbury Ring; {20} this embankment continued until a steep declivity on our right had disappeared and we reached comparatively flat and open country.

The low embankment at the side of the steep declivity here appeared to define the limit of the contained area around the settlement. The declivity itself would be useless either for grazing ground or cultivation; but it here formed a natural defensive boundary to the settlement.

From this point, where the low embankment surmounts the natural declivity of the land, a long and gentle slope, gradually becoming steeper, brings us to the bluff lying to the south-east of Chanctonbury Ring, from which it is less than a quarter of a mile distant. On this bluff may be found perhaps the most interesting of all the objects we are describing.

As one ascends the bluff the skyline reveals the fact that it is crowned by fortifications on a fairly large scale. It is not, however, until one is actually upon it that one perceives the purpose of these earthworks. They are then seen, on the aspect facing the steep side of the bluff, to surround a dew-pond. They consist of a deep trench cut in the face of the hill, part of the thrown-up earth from which forms one side of the basin, while the remainder forms two parallel protective mounds.

This trench and the mounds are carried round the exposed side of the pond, farthest away from the Ring, and extend in each direction for some distance {21} in such a manner as to furnish cover along the steepest part of the ascent. The space between the dew-pond and Chanctonbury Ring is entirely open and unprotected. Not only do these earthworks closely     X.—Fortifications surrounding dew-pond near Chanctonbury Ring surround one side of the pond, but, as they extend to the east, they enclose the remains of a dwelling or watch-house.

The very steep side of the down on this, the north-east aspect, was probably covered by primeval forest, the natural resort of wild animals. {22}

It is evident that this dew-pond together with another smaller one, which is situated on the top of the ridge to the west, furnished the water-supply of the inhabitants of Chanctonbury Ring. In the event of their destruction, the inhabitants of the Ring would     XI.—Remains of watch-house enclosed within the earthworks defending the dew-pond close to Chanctonbury Ring have been temporarily reduced to the utmost straits, and in this fact one may find an explanation of the amount of labour expended not only on their construction, but on the protection of the larger one. This larger dew-pond, of sixty or seventy feet in {23} diameter, necessarily an elaborate structure, built, as we have pointed out, before the age of any metal implement, was a work of incredible labour, comparable in amount to that expended in building the Rings themselves. It is worthy of note that, although     XII.—View of dew-pond near Chanctonbury Ring. Trees covering Chanctonbury Ring seen in the distance it cannot be perceived from below, it is well in view from Chanctonbury Ring itself. But a short distance lies between the pond and the Ring; and as one traverses this intermediate space, a fresh element of interest may be discerned by the experienced eye. {24} As the ground steeply rises to the Ring, the remains of about half-a-dozen circular mounds may be traced, lying immediately outside the Ring on the eastern slope. These tumuli are of present human interest in that they have been placed in that spot upon which the rays of the rising sun will first strike. There the sleepers await the Dawn of the New Day.

The Ring surrounds the apex of one of the highest downs in the South of England. It is the most conspicuous position in a whole system of settlements on the South Downs. It projects like a promontory from the South Downs into the Sussex plain below, and the apex of this headland stands over 800 feet above the level of the sea.

At present it is covered by a large clump of trees, and the mound is raised just within their margin.

The view from this point is one of the most magnificent and extensive in England. On a clear day one may perceive in the south-west the outlines of the Isle of Wight, and in the south-east the position of Brighton may be discerned. Northwards the great plain of Sussex is laid out as on a map. From this plain the down rises almost precipitously to the summit. The mound of the Ring itself is perhaps 12 feet high, and makes a complete circuit as a crown upon the head of the down.

The trees within this Ring have served a double purpose—the fallen leaves have formed a mould which hides the remains of any habitation or other sign of {25} primeval occupation; but their roots have gradually brought to the surface remains of a later occupation. We found Roman roof tiles in such profusion that it would have been an easy matter to fill a barrow with them.

    XIII.—View of part of the mound of Chanctonbury Ring

The Roman, like his primeval predecessor, had been attracted to this wonderful spot; and the remains of the moulded roof tiles suggest the former existence of a comparatively permanent structure, but we could find no definite evidence of its purpose or character.

This unique spot, which was of such vital importance {26} to the existence of primeval man, and where he laid his dead to be greeted by the rising sun, may have been but a pleasure resort to the luxurious Roman, and today it is scarcely more than a name to the inhabitants of the district.

Neolithic man approached his settlement by passing over the whole range of the Downs, and from his exalted position he could look down upon Cissbury Ring some miles distant, where his herdsmen were guarding his beasts.

Descending the comparatively precipitous northern slope is a neolithic road which is no mere gully or cattle-way. This is a broad, smooth route, cut in the side of the down, designed to take advantage of the easiest gradients leading from the Ring.

Standing upon the upper parts of this roadway and looking out upon the broad plain below, one sees the white straight line of a Roman road drawn through the country as though with a ruler. This line terminates at a distance of some miles from the foot of the Downs; but, if it is projected, it will be found to meet the spot at which the road from the summit enters the plain.

The antiquity of the road upon the down is attested by a tree growing on the cutting formed to construct it. This tree must have taken root since the road was constructed, otherwise it would not be found on the surface of a cutting exposed during the period of construction. Its trunk, though short, is of great girth, {27} hollow and gnarled, covered by great bosses and excrescences, and with ferns growing in the angles of the boughs; its age must be measured by centuries.

At the present time the end of this road is lost in a chalk-pit at the bottom, but from the fields below its course may be clearly discerned.